Compare and Contrast the successes and failures of the Domestic Policies of Mussolini and Hitler

After WWI, many countries were unsatisfied with the results of the Treaty of Versailles, amongst them Italy and Germany, both of which felt they had been humiliated and cheated. Riding on these feelings of national humiliation, two leaders under the banner of Fascism rose to power. Through their domestic policies, Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini campaigned for autarky, uniting their people and rising again as a world power, all the while instilling their ideologies into their people and establishing themselves as a cult figure; yet the extent of their success in these policies and what they aimed to achieve from them is what differentiates the two. This essay will attempt to compare and contrast the difference between these two leaders and their successes and failures in domestic policy, hence gaining a better understanding of how their actions accelerated the path towards World War II. The degree of success or failure of each respective policy is my own opinion based on my assessment of the issues, therefore different claims can be made.

At the closure of WWI, both Germany and Italy’s economy was in shambles, poverty rampant, and the people overridden with a sense of shame and anger towards their leaders. It is at this low point where both Hitler and Mussolini came into power, announcing to the world a new doctrine known as Fascism. With promises of a revitalization of their economy and jobs for the thousands of unemployed, the people rallied to their side. To accomplish this, both leaders strived for Autarky, or self-sufficiency, to make sure that their countries could support themselves and never depend on foreign assistance, and the means to do this was by becoming a military state.

The first step in this endeavor was to reestablish their armed forces, which once conscripted eliminated a vast amount of the unemployment rate. From there, every other decision to better their economy was based on militaristic needs.

The second step for the leaders to achieve Autarky was to become agriculturally sufficient. Now that they had the military, they needed to feed their troops as well as protect their country from potential blockades (which proved to be fatal for the Germans in WWI) by becoming less reliant on foreign import. To achieve this, they set up a series of laws that would help the agricultural industry.

Mussolini focused a lot of energy on the production of grain, and although the production did rise drastically to the point almost being self-sufficient in the production of grain, all other agricultural production was disregarded, leading not only to an imbalance in the Italian people’s diet, but also a need to export other crops and animal products. Known as the Battle for Grain (1925), this policy failed to a certain extent, because although they were self sufficient in grains, this unbalance was greatly felt in the lower Italian classes, as well as hindering his overall aim for autarky.

Like his Italian counterpart, Hitler also invested a lot of effort in agriculture with plans such as the Reich Food Estate (1933), which regulated prices and production quotas or the Entitled Farm Law (1933), which supported production by giving land to Aryan peasants. Proving to be much more successful than Mussolini’s plan, it also revealed his racial and anti-Semitic ideals, since only those who were considered pure Arians could receive land under the Entitled Farm Law.

            From these points in agriculture, we can see that although they both want to better their economy through its agriculture and focusing on military goals, Hitler has already started his racial campaigns, something that is not a part of Mussolini’s agenda. 

Next was to establish themselves as strong industrial powers. They needed to produce weapons for their soldiers, and therefore allow factories to go back to work, and to accomplish this both nations set forth laws to further implement the idea of Autarky.

In Germany, Hitler implemented the New Plan (1934), which stopped all foreign imports and subsidized industry, hence raising their production in war essentials such as coal or oil. Later they implemented the Four Year Plan (1936), which was meant to prepare Germany for war in four years, in both industry and army. This left the country in a sate of Wehrwirtschaft, an economic state where both the economics of peacetime and wartime were combined. Although these policies successfully boosted the economy and industry, the economy was strictly controlled, and many small businesses were sacrificed to support bigger industries, which on the long run gave Germany more problems. Labor unions also came under Nazi control by implementing policies such as the RAD, which gave jobs to men while wearing an army uniform, the Strength Through Joy (KdF), which was a controlled leisure organization, or the German Labor Front (DAF). By controlling the labor unions, Hitler was able to control the workers as he pleased.

For Mussolini, the goal of modernization had been long overdue, since he felt this would help establish Italy as a leading European power. Through the pact of the Vidoni Palace in 1925, Mussolini gained virtually total control over all labor unions and their workers. Once they were under his control he underwent policies such as his Battle for Land, which cleared marshlands to make it useable for more profitable purposes, or his Battle of the Lira, where he inflated the value of their currency and therefore making exports more expensive. Although the first battle is considered to be a success, the latter was widely recognized as a failure. This policy made it difficult to trade with foreign countries, yet in the long run it proved beneficiary since once the Great Depression hit Italy wasn’t as severely affected. 

From these industrialization points, we can see that although industry was internalized in both countries, Hitler focused more militarily in his goals while Mussolini was more opportunistic, going with what proved to be most profitable.

With their economy successfully underway, both countries found themselves in need of natural resources, which lead them towards imperialistic expansion. Although these actions are tied with foreign policy, the overall aim of them was for Autarky, which was part of both of their domestic policy goals. What is most important to notice about the two leaders’ decisions in regards of expansion, was how planned their aims were.

Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 proved successful when Mussolini managed to gain victory, mainly due to the failure of the League of Nations. This success earned him respect amongst the people, which encouraged him towards more imperialistic actions such as those in Corfu.

Germany’s actions, such as the invasion of the Rhineland or Anschluss, were more calculated in nature, for they were specifically pointed out in Hitler’s book Mein Kampf. 

From here we can see a great difference between the two rulers. Although they both agreed that through the use of the military and expansion into other countries for resources they could successfully solve domestic problems (such as lack of natural resources), Mussolini proves to be opportunistic; swinging from left to right winged actions (Third Way) depending on what favored him at the time, while Hitler maintained a steady path and clearly stated goals.

If we take a prosopography view on all the above events, we can attempt to understand the minds of the common people under their regime. The success  in revitalizing their economy and removing them from poverty, lead to the people to idolize these men who had done so much for them. Therefore when more controversial ideas were presented, they were more likely to go along with them since these leaders had already done so much for them.

If we look at a militaristic point of view, we might consider these actions militaristic in nature, actions that were taken out of a necessity to survive; while a revisionist historian might state that these were provocations of war that were a necessity to their fascist ideal, which relied heavily on militaristic endeavors.

Maintaining strong control over the opposition, aided them to maintain their power. They violently eliminated opposition in events such as the Night of Long Knives (1934) or the assassination of Giacomo Matteotti who spoke out against the Fascists in 1924, with their respective forces – the GESTAPO in Germany and the OVRA in Italy. They were especially radical against the communists, eliminating them in their respective countries and claiming them as the enemy. By making laws that made any form of opposition to their rule illegal, they mad sure they had their county under their complete control. This instilled terror in those who opposed the rulers and allowed them to go about without fear of opposition.  
Although one might attempt to refute this claim by stating that there were numerous assassination attempts against these men, it is important to notice that all these attempts failed. Both would then swiftly eliminate those who opposed them and inflict fear in any other potential enemies to their security,  and it is thanks to this violent success that the bulk of these assassination attempts occurred during their first years in power. 

These actions allowed both men to achieve wide popularity at home, but it is their effective use of propaganda and censorship as a means of glorification that allowed them to achieve a cult status and further strengthen their authoritarian regimes. 

With propaganda that emphasized their greatness and names to match (Mussolini was called Il Duce and Hitler Fuehrer), the two leaders built on their status. Both strictly controlled the contents of the press, the difference between the two being that Hitler controlled the majority of the press while Mussolini simply censored the content of it. They both did however have their own newspapers for that promoted their own interests, Il Popolo d’Italia in Italy and Der Strummer or Volkischer Beobachter in Germany. They also successfully managed to control the radio, Mussolini establishing the URI, a radio show that promoted and glorified the actions taken by his Fascist government.

Through sporting events, such as the German 1938 Olympics, or frequent rallies that celebrated actions taken by the government and its respective leader, they promoted themselves as almost invincible rulers.

By taking advantage and using propaganda in the form movies, Hitler was able to more effectively use the people, for with movies such as Hitler Junge Quex or Triumph of the will: Der Ewige Jude, he was able to spread his ideals to the masses. Mussolini on the other hand did not take as good advantage of the film industry.

Through these media, they effectively created their status as heroes of the nation as well as promoting their ideological ideals while simultaneously dismissing other views. Overall they were both very successful in their propaganda campaigns, Hitler proving to be slightly more competent in the area since he managed to more exclusively control the media. It can also be mentioned that the extent of their control can be seen since although in the beginning neither could do wrong, Mussolini’s empire ended by his own people. Therefore, Hitler was more successful in convincing the masses and securing his position as a nationalistic hero.

A great man historian’s point of view, would point out the success these men had in establishing themselves as cult figures idolized by the masses. He’d agree that this control over propaganda and ability to establish themselves as heroes of the nation was instrumental to their success since it made the people undoubtedly trust them and act out every order they commanded.

To maintain this cult status and therefore spread their ideals, both leaders focused extensively in their youth. Their main aim was to create a future generation that would oblige to the orders of their leaders while acting always for the benefit of Germany and the government. They made sure that girls and boys were separated, the first focusing on activities such as sowing or motherly related activities, while the latter focused on military activities in preparation for the war.

Starting off with more appealing activities for children such as camping or sporting, many became less satisfied with the programs over the years, especially as it became compulsory and militaristic in nature. Some escaped the compulsory part, and although the number of those who did not attend was less in Germany, youth movements against Hitler and the Nazi government were established.

One must point out though, that when the Hitler Youth was established, there was a rapid membership despite the compulsory nature of it; while on the other hand the program was less successful in Italy, where despite it being compulsory many did not attend, especially in the South. This shows to what extent the two leaders controlled their masses, for Mussolini was already losing part of his power, which is evident in his inability to completely control the youth.

They both also exerted control through schooling, altering the curriculum to fit their ideological needs. They both removed all teachers that did not belong to their respective part, and focused only in physical fitness and loyalty. The issue with this, was that intellectually, both nations made little progress in their young, thus creating a generation of dimwits.

For both leaders, the extent of their success is difficult to determine exactly. Although it proved to be more successful in Germany, especially in regards of “brainwashing” the youth with Nazi ideology, during the war it proved unsuccessful since not all were loyal. Overall, it did create a generation that was closely affiliated to the ideologies taught in school, but the extent of their loyalty wasn’t absolute and they gave up intelligence for loyalty.

The role of woman in both countries was generally the same. They emphasized a traditional role, where women stayed at home and made babies.

Both countries wanted to increase birthrates since they had small populations by giving loans for newlyweds and families with many children, taxation on bachelors, or medals to women who gave birth to many children. They presented the situation as one of national duty, as they provided the soldiers for the army, and in Italy it was known as the Battle for Births.

Although unsuccessful in both nations, the Nazi’s racial policies that supported sterilization only limited their success. Also, by promoting them to stay at home, once the war started and the men went to fight, Hitler was forced to reintroduce them to the work force.
One might point out that there was indeed a slight increase in birth rate in Germany during Hitler's rule, but it was most likely not due to his policies, but rather the better economic situation that allowed families to afford more children. Therefore, proving that his policies to increase birth rate in Germany did fail. 

             

            They also attempted to control the church to consolidate their power. Although they were both anti-religious, they understood the vital importance of controlling it to maintain power.

            With the Lateran agreements, Mussolini attempted to please the church by giving them back compensation for the land they had historically lost, therefore allowing him to do as he pleased without Church intervention. By receiving approval from the church, many catholic Italians joined his cause; yet this ultimately proved unsuccessful since he became highly dependant on pleasing the church and wasn’t able to replace Catholicism with Fascism.

            On the other hand, Hitler’s approach was to go against the power of the church rather than appeasing it. He created the Reich Church that went along with his Aryan faith, and arrested individuals who went against it. Therefore, in order to avoid destruction, the Church was forced to compromise. Despite this, the Reich Church wasn’t that popular and they failed in controlling religion.

            The key difference between the two leaders is mainly due to location. The Vatican is located in Italy, and therefore highly influential, making it difficult for Mussolini to control it as well as Hitler was able to. In the end, the Church had a great role in the downfall of Mussolini after their disagreements in regards to the youth and his anti-Semitic policies, while the Church in Germany proved to have little in hindrances to Hitler’s rule.

            Finally, the major difference between the two leaders, lied in their racial policies. From the beginning, Hitler clearly knew his racial views and desire for a superior Aryan race as well as his hatred for the Jewish population; while Mussolini’s racial laws were gradual and highly influenced by his alliance with Hitler.

            Hitler’s entire policy structure was based on his idea of a superior Aryan race, where he created a state that was only meant for the racially pure, known as the Volksgemeinschaft. It influenced all his major decisions and was a main pillar of his Nazi ideology. This purity meant that all those that did not meet his Aryan model – such as Jews, Gypsies, or disabled people – had to ultimately be eliminated. As soon as he came into  power, he established laws that suppressed them, imprisonment, sterilization, euthanasia, and finally his “Final Solution”, which was the mass extermination of these people. These policies were extremely successful, managing to mass murder thousands of people and influence average German citizens to assist him in this task.

            Mussolini on the other hand originally had no prejudice against specific racial groups, since his main goal was to convert them all to Fascism. It was in the later years when he began to align himself with Hitler after the establishment of the Rome-Berlin axis under the Pact of Steel in 1939, that he began to introduce laws against the Jewish population. Unlike in Hitler’s case, these laws were an extreme failure, greatly leading to his demise. It made him highly unpopular with the church, which in turn made him unpopular with his people.

            This difference in racial ideology was the key differentiator between the two. Yet more importantly, it shows how highly in control Hitler was amongst his people that they would commit such atrocities in his name. Mussolini on the other hand didn’t have as much control over his people, and he also proved to be easily influenced, which lead his people to stop supporting his cause. 

            Overall, both of these leaders were highly influential and established themselves as cult figures because of the decisions they took in their domestic policies. Their popularity amongst the masses is evident of their success, which stabilized both of their countries’ economy after a prolonged period of crisis. Their respective ideological goals were also accomplished, although Hitler proved to be more successful in this aspect since Mussolini’s own people took him down when they disagreed with his racial policies. Therefore, based on the above information, I’ve come to the conclusion that both Mussolini and Hitler’s domestic polices were quite successful, the latter proving to be more successful since he managed to stay in power and highly alter the minds of his people.